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[TOC]

# Error Handling

Errors are a fact of life in software, so Rust has a number of features for
handling situations in which something goes wrong. In many cases, Rust requires
you to acknowledge the possibility of an error and take some action before your
code will compile. This requirement makes your program more robust by ensuring
that you’ll discover errors and handle them appropriately before you’ve
deployed your code to production!

Rust groups errors into two major categories: *recoverable* and *unrecoverable*
errors. For a recoverable error, such as a *file not found* error, we most
likely just want to report the problem to the user and retry the operation.
Unrecoverable errors are always symptoms of bugs, like trying to access a
location beyond the end of an array, and so we want to immediately stop the
program.

Most languages don’t distinguish between these two kinds of errors and handle
both in the same way, using mechanisms such as exceptions. Rust doesn’t have
exceptions. Instead, it has the type `Result<T, E>` for recoverable errors and
the `panic!` macro that stops execution when the program encounters an
unrecoverable error. This chapter covers calling `panic!` first and then talks
about returning `Result<T, E>` values. Additionally, we’ll explore
considerations when deciding whether to try to recover from an error or to stop
execution.

## Unrecoverable Errors with `panic!`

Sometimes, bad things happen in your code, and there’s nothing you can do about
it. In these cases, Rust has the `panic!` macro. There are two ways to cause a
panic in practice: by taking an action that causes our code to panic (such as
accessing an array past the end) or by explicitly calling the `panic!` macro.
In both cases, we cause a panic in our program. By default, these panics will
print a failure message, unwind, clean up the stack, and quit. Via an
environment variable, you can also have Rust display the call stack when a
panic occurs to make it easier to track down the source of the panic.

<!-- does Rust invoke the panic, or do we? Or sometimes it can be either? /LC --->
<!-- We will have done *something* through a combination of the code we've
written and the data the program gets at runtime. It *might* involve us
literally typing `panic!` into our code, or it might be part of Rust that we're
using that calls `panic!` for us because of something else we've done. Does
that make sense? I've tried to clarify the last sentence a bit here /Carol -->
<!---
One way we could explain it is to say there are two ways to cause a panic in
practice: by doing an action that causes our code to panic, like accessing an
array past the end or dividing by zero, or by explicitly calling the `panic!`
macro. In both cases, we cause a panic in our application. By default, these
panics will unwind and clean up the stack. Via an environment setting, you can
also have Rust display the call stack when a panic occurs to make it easier to
track down the source of the panic.
/JT --->
<!-- I've taken JT's suggestion with some edits in the paragraph above /Carol
-->
> ### Unwinding the Stack or Aborting in Response to a Panic
>
> By default, when a panic occurs, the program starts *unwinding*, which
> means Rust walks back up the stack and cleans up the data from each function
> it encounters. However, this walking back and cleanup is a lot of work. Rust,
> therefore, allows you to choose the alternative of immediately *aborting*,
> which ends the program without cleaning up.
>
> Memory that the program was using will then need to be cleaned
> up by the operating system. If in your project you need to make the resulting
> binary as small as possible, you can switch from unwinding to aborting upon a
> panic by adding `panic = 'abort'` to the appropriate `[profile]` sections in
> your *Cargo.toml* file. For example, if you want to abort on panic in release
> mode, add this:
>
> ```toml
> [profile.release]
> panic = 'abort'
> ```

Let’s try calling `panic!` in a simple program:

Filename: src/main.rs

```
fn main() {
    panic!("crash and burn");
}
```

When you run the program, you’ll see something like this:

```
thread 'main' panicked at 'crash and burn', src/main.rs:2:5
note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace
```

The call to `panic!` causes the error message contained in the last two lines.
The first line shows our panic message and the place in our source code where
the panic occurred: *src/main.rs:2:5* indicates that it’s the second line,
fifth character of our *src/main.rs* file.

In this case, the line indicated is part of our code, and if we go to that
line, we see the `panic!` macro call. In other cases, the `panic!` call might
be in code that our code calls, and the filename and line number reported by
the error message will be someone else’s code where the `panic!` macro is
called, not the line of our code that eventually led to the `panic!` call. We
can use the backtrace of the functions the `panic!` call came from to figure
out the part of our code that is causing the problem. We’ll discuss backtraces
in more detail next.

### Using a `panic!` Backtrace

Let’s look at another example to see what it’s like when a `panic!` call comes
from a library because of a bug in our code instead of from our code calling
the macro directly. Listing 9-1 has some code that attempts to access an
index in a vector beyond the range of valid indexes.

Filename: src/main.rs

```
fn main() {
    let v = vec![1, 2, 3];

    v[99];
}
```

Listing 9-1: Attempting to access an element beyond the end of a vector, which
will cause a call to `panic!`

Here, we’re attempting to access the 100th element of our vector (which is at
index 99 because indexing starts at zero), but the vector has only 3 elements.
In this situation, Rust will panic. Using `[]` is supposed to return an
element, but if you pass an invalid index, there’s no element that Rust could
return here that would be correct.

In C, attempting to read beyond the end of a data structure is undefined
behavior. You might get whatever is at the location in memory that would
correspond to that element in the data structure, even though the memory
doesn’t belong to that structure. This is called a *buffer overread* and can
lead to security vulnerabilities if an attacker is able to manipulate the index
in such a way as to read data they shouldn’t be allowed to that is stored after
the data structure.

To protect your program from this sort of vulnerability, if you try to read an
element at an index that doesn’t exist, Rust will stop execution and refuse to
continue. Let’s try it and see:

```
thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99', src/main.rs:4:5
note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace
```

This error points at line 4 of our `main.rs` where we attempt to access index
99. The next note line tells us that we can set the `RUST_BACKTRACE`
environment variable to get a backtrace of exactly what happened to cause the
error. A *backtrace* is a list of all the functions that have been called to
get to this point. Backtraces in Rust work as they do in other languages: the
key to reading the backtrace is to start from the top and read until you see
files you wrote. That’s the spot where the problem originated. The lines above
that spot are code that your code has called; the lines below are code that
called your code. These before-and-after lines might include core Rust code,
standard library code, or crates that you’re using. Let’s try getting a
backtrace by setting the `RUST_BACKTRACE` environment variable to any value
except 0. Listing 9-2 shows output similar to what you’ll see.

```
$ RUST_BACKTRACE=1 cargo run
thread 'main' panicked at 'index out of bounds: the len is 3 but the index is 99', src/main.rs:4:5
stack backtrace:
   0: rust_begin_unwind
             at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/std/src/panicking.rs:483
   1: core::panicking::panic_fmt
             at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/panicking.rs:85
   2: core::panicking::panic_bounds_check
             at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/panicking.rs:62
   3: <usize as core::slice::index::SliceIndex<[T]>>::index
             at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:255
   4: core::slice::index::<impl core::ops::index::Index<I> for [T]>::index
             at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/slice/index.rs:15
   5: <alloc::vec::Vec<T> as core::ops::index::Index<I>>::index
             at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/alloc/src/vec.rs:1982
   6: panic::main
             at ./src/main.rs:4
   7: core::ops::function::FnOnce::call_once
             at /rustc/7eac88abb2e57e752f3302f02be5f3ce3d7adfb4/library/core/src/ops/function.rs:227
note: Some details are omitted, run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=full` for a verbose backtrace.
```

Listing 9-2: The backtrace generated by a call to `panic!` displayed when the
environment variable `RUST_BACKTRACE` is set

That’s a lot of output! The exact output you see might be different depending
on your operating system and Rust version. In order to get backtraces with this
information, debug symbols must be enabled. Debug symbols are enabled by
default when using `cargo build` or `cargo run` without the `--release` flag,
as we have here.

In the output in Listing 9-2, line 6 of the backtrace points to the line in our
project that’s causing the problem: line 4 of *src/main.rs*. If we don’t want
our program to panic, we should start our investigation at the location pointed
to by the first line mentioning a file we wrote. In Listing 9-1, where we
deliberately wrote code that would panic, the way to fix the panic is to not
request an element beyond the range of the vector indexes. When your code
panics in the future, you’ll need to figure out what action the code is taking
with what values to cause the panic and what the code should do instead.

We’ll come back to `panic!` and when we should and should not use `panic!` to
handle error conditions in the “To `panic!` or Not to `panic!`” section later
in this chapter. Next, we’ll look at how to recover from an error using
`Result`.

## Recoverable Errors with `Result`

Most errors aren’t serious enough to require the program to stop entirely.
Sometimes, when a function fails, it’s for a reason that you can easily
interpret and respond to. For example, if you try to open a file and that
operation fails because the file doesn’t exist, you might want to create the
file instead of terminating the process.

Recall from “Handling Potential Failure with the `Result` Type” in Chapter 2
that the `Result` enum is defined as having two variants, `Ok` and `Err`, as
follows:

```
enum Result<T, E> {
    Ok(T),
    Err(E),
}
```

The `T` and `E` are generic type parameters: we’ll discuss generics in more
detail in Chapter 10. What you need to know right now is that `T` represents
the type of the value that will be returned in a success case within the `Ok`
variant, and `E` represents the type of the error that will be returned in a
failure case within the `Err` variant. Because `Result` has these generic type
parameters, we can use the `Result` type and the functions defined on it in
many different situations where the successful value and error value we want to
return may differ.

Let’s call a function that returns a `Result` value because the function could
fail. In Listing 9-3 we try to open a file.

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use std::fs::File;

fn main() {
    let greeting_file_result = File::open("hello.txt");
}
```

Listing 9-3: Opening a file

<!---
This brings up an interesting point - should we teach them to install
rust-analyzer in the setup instructions? If so, then we can tell them to mouse
over the name of what they want the typename of. The "assign something to i32 to
have rustc tell you what it is" feels a bit like old style Rust.
/JT --->
<!-- I somewhat disagree here; not everyone uses IDE plugins. I'll see what JT
says about mentioning rust-analyzer in chapter 1 rather than in the appendix...
I am in favor of making the book shorter, though, so I've removed the parts
about asking the compiler what the type of something is by deliberately
annotating with the wrong type. /Carol -->

The return type of `File::open` is a `Result<T, E>`. The generic parameter `T`
has been filled in by the implementation of `File::open` with the type of the
success value, `std::fs::File`, which is a file handle. The type of `E` used in
the error value is `std::io::Error`. This return type means the call to
`File::open` might succeed and return a file handle that we can read from or
write to. The function call also might fail: for example, the file might not
exist, or we might not have permission to access the file. The `File::open`
function needs to have a way to tell us whether it succeeded or failed and at
the same time give us either the file handle or error information. This
information is exactly what the `Result` enum conveys.

In the case where `File::open` succeeds, the value in the variable
`greeting_file_result` will be an instance of `Ok` that contains a file handle.
In the case where it fails, the value in `greeting_file_result` will be an
instance of `Err` that contains more information about the kind of error that
happened.

We need to add to the code in Listing 9-3 to take different actions depending
on the value `File::open` returns. Listing 9-4 shows one way to handle the
`Result` using a basic tool, the `match` expression that we discussed in
Chapter 6.

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use std::fs::File;

fn main() {
    let greeting_file_result = File::open("hello.txt");

    let greeting_file = match greeting_file_result {
        Ok(file) => file,
        Err(error) => panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error),
    };
}
```

Listing 9-4: Using a `match` expression to handle the `Result` variants that
might be returned

Note that, like the `Option` enum, the `Result` enum and its variants have been
brought into scope by the prelude, so we don’t need to specify `Result::`
before the `Ok` and `Err` variants in the `match` arms.

When the result is `Ok`, this code will return the inner `file` value out of
the `Ok` variant, and we then assign that file handle value to the variable
`greeting_file`. After the `match`, we can use the file handle for reading or
writing.

The other arm of the `match` handles the case where we get an `Err` value from
`File::open`. In this example, we’ve chosen to call the `panic!` macro. If
there’s no file named *hello.txt* in our current directory and we run this
code, we’ll see the following output from the `panic!` macro:

```
thread 'main' panicked at 'Problem opening the file: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" }', src/main.rs:8:23
```

As usual, this output tells us exactly what has gone wrong.

### Matching on Different Errors

The code in Listing 9-4 will `panic!` no matter why `File::open` failed.
However, we want to take different actions for different failure reasons: if
`File::open` failed because the file doesn’t exist, we want to create the file
and return the handle to the new file. If `File::open` failed for any other
reason—for example, because we didn’t have permission to open the file—we still
want the code to `panic!` in the same way as it did in Listing 9-4. For this we
add an inner `match` expression, shown in Listing 9-5.

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use std::fs::File;
use std::io::ErrorKind;

fn main() {
    let greeting_file_result = File::open("hello.txt");

    let greeting_file = match greeting_file_result {
        Ok(file) => file,
        Err(error) => match error.kind() {
            ErrorKind::NotFound => match File::create("hello.txt") {
                Ok(fc) => fc,
                Err(e) => panic!("Problem creating the file: {:?}", e),
            }
            other_error => {
                panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", other_error);
            }
        }
    };
}
```

Listing 9-5: Handling different kinds of errors in different ways

The type of the value that `File::open` returns inside the `Err` variant is
`io::Error`, which is a struct provided by the standard library. This struct
has a method `kind` that we can call to get an `io::ErrorKind` value. The enum
`io::ErrorKind` is provided by the standard library and has variants
representing the different kinds of errors that might result from an `io`
operation. The variant we want to use is `ErrorKind::NotFound`, which indicates
the file we’re trying to open doesn’t exist yet. So we match on
`greeting_file_result`, but we also have an inner match on `error.kind()`.

The condition we want to check in the inner match is whether the value returned
by `error.kind()` is the `NotFound` variant of the `ErrorKind` enum. If it is,
we try to create the file with `File::create`. However, because `File::create`
could also fail, we need a second arm in the inner `match` expression. When the
file can’t be created, a different error message is printed. The second arm of
the outer `match` stays the same, so the program panics on any error besides
the missing file error.

> ### Alternatives to Using `match` with `Result<T, E>`
>
> That’s a lot of `match`! The `match` expression is very useful but also very
> much a primitive. In Chapter 13, you’ll learn about closures, which are used
> with many of the methods defined on `Result<T, E>`. These methods can be more
> concise than using `match` when handling `Result<T, E>` values in your code.

> For example, here’s another way to write the same logic as shown in Listing
> 9-5, this time using closures and the `unwrap_or_else` method:
>
> ```
> use std::fs::File;
> use std::io::ErrorKind;
>
> fn main() {
>     let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| {
>         if error.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound {
>             File::create("hello.txt").unwrap_or_else(|error| {
>                 panic!("Problem creating the file: {:?}", error);
>             })
>         } else {
>             panic!("Problem opening the file: {:?}", error);
>         }
>     });
> }
> ```
>
> Although this code has the same behavior as Listing 9-5, it doesn’t contain
> any `match` expressions and is cleaner to read. Come back to this example
> after you’ve read Chapter 13, and look up the `unwrap_or_else` method in the
> standard library documentation. Many more of these methods can clean up huge
> nested `match` expressions when you’re dealing with errors.

### Shortcuts for Panic on Error: `unwrap` and `expect`

Using `match` works well enough, but it can be a bit verbose and doesn’t always
communicate intent well. The `Result<T, E>` type has many helper methods
defined on it to do various, more specific tasks. The `unwrap` method is a
shortcut method implemented just like the `match` expression we wrote in
Listing 9-4. If the `Result` value is the `Ok` variant, `unwrap` will return
the value inside the `Ok`. If the `Result` is the `Err` variant, `unwrap` will
call the `panic!` macro for us. Here is an example of `unwrap` in action:

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use std::fs::File;

fn main() {
    let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt").unwrap();
}
```

If we run this code without a *hello.txt* file, we’ll see an error message from
the `panic!` call that the `unwrap` method makes:

```
thread 'main' panicked at 'called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value: Error {
repr: Os { code: 2, message: "No such file or directory" } }',
src/libcore/result.rs:906:4
```

<!---
More recent rustc versions give a bit better error here (specifically the location):

thread 'main' panicked at 'called `Result::unwrap()` on an `Err` value:
Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound, message: "No such file or directory" }', src/main.rs:4:37
note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace
/JT --->
<!-- I'll update the error output when we're in Word /Carol -->

Similarly, the `expect` method lets us also choose the `panic!` error message.
Using `expect` instead of `unwrap` and providing good error messages can convey
your intent and make tracking down the source of a panic easier. The syntax of
`expect` looks like this:

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use std::fs::File;

fn main() {
    let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")
        .expect("hello.txt should be included in this project");
}
```

We use `expect` in the same way as `unwrap`: to return the file handle or call
the `panic!` macro. The error message used by `expect` in its call to `panic!`
will be the parameter that we pass to `expect`, rather than the default
`panic!` message that `unwrap` uses. Here’s what it looks like:

```
thread 'main' panicked at 'hello.txt should be included in this project: Error { repr: Os { code:
2, message: "No such file or directory" } }', src/libcore/result.rs:906:4
```

<!---
Ditto with the above:

thread 'main' panicked at 'Failed to open hello.txt: Os { code: 2, kind: NotFound,
message: "No such file or directory" }', src/main.rs:4:37
note: run with `RUST_BACKTRACE=1` environment variable to display a backtrace
/JT --->
<!-- I'll update the error output when we're in Word /Carol -->

In production-quality code, most Rustaceans choose `expect` rather than
`unwrap` and give more context about why the operation is expected to always
succeed. That way, if your assumptions are ever proven wrong, you have more
information to use in debugging.

<!---
Now that `unwrap` and `expect` give an improved file location, we may not
need the paragraph above.
/JT --->
<!-- I've changed the paragraph above, as well as the text in the examaple
usage of `expect`, to better reflect current best practices and the reasons for
them. /Carol -->

### Propagating Errors

When a function’s implementation calls something that might fail, instead of
handling the error within the function itself, you can return the error to the
calling code so that it can decide what to do. This is known as *propagating*
the error and gives more control to the calling code, where there might be more
information or logic that dictates how the error should be handled than what
you have available in the context of your code.

For example, Listing 9-6 shows a function that reads a username from a file. If
the file doesn’t exist or can’t be read, this function will return those errors
to the code that called the function.

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use std::fs::File;
use std::io::{self, Read};

fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> [1] {
    let username_file_result = File::open("hello.txt"); [2]

    let mut username_file [3] = match username_file_result {
        Ok(file) => file, [4]
        Err(e) => return Err(e), [5]
    };

    let mut username = String::new(); [6]

    match username_file.read_to_string(&mut username) [7] {
        Ok(_) => Ok(username), [8]
        Err(e) => Err(e), [9]
    }
}
```

Listing 9-6: A function that returns errors to the calling code using `match`

This function can be written in a much shorter way, but we’re going to start by
doing a lot of it manually in order to explore error handling; at the end,
we’ll show the shorter way. Let’s look at the return type of the function
first: `Result<String, io::Error>` [1]. This means the function is returning a
value of the type `Result<T, E>` where the generic parameter `T` has been
filled in with the concrete type `String`, and the generic type `E` has been
filled in with the concrete type `io::Error`.

If this function succeeds without any problems, the code that calls this
function will receive an `Ok` value that holds a `String`—the username that
this function read from the file [8]. If this function encounters any problems,
the calling code will receive an `Err` value that holds an instance of
`io::Error` that contains more information about what the problems were. We
chose `io::Error` as the return type of this function because that happens to
be the type of the error value returned from both of the operations we’re
calling in this function’s body that might fail: the `File::open` function [2]
and the `read_to_string` method [7].

The body of the function starts by calling the `File::open` function [2]. Then
we handle the `Result` value with a `match` similar to the `match` in Listing
9-4. If `File::open` succeeds, the file handle in the pattern variable `file`
[4] becomes the value in the mutable variable `username_file` [3] and the
function continues. In the `Err` case, instead of calling `panic!`, we use the
`return` keyword to return early out of the function entirely and pass the
error value from `File::open`, now in the pattern variable `e`, back to the
calling code as this function’s error value [5].

So if we have a file handle in `username_file`, the function then creates a new
`String` in variable `username` [6] and calls the `read_to_string` method on
the file handle in `username_file` to read the contents of the file into
`username` [7]. The `read_to_string` method also returns a `Result` because it
might fail, even though `File::open` succeeded. So we need another `match` to
handle that `Result`: if `read_to_string` succeeds, then our function has
succeeded, and we return the username from the file that’s now in `username`
wrapped in an `Ok`. If `read_to_string` fails, we return the error value in the
same way that we returned the error value in the `match` that handled the
return value of `File::open`. However, we don’t need to explicitly say
`return`, because this is the last expression in the function [9].

<!---
Style nit: I'm finding the above two paragraphs a bit difficult to read
comfortably. I think one issue is that we're using a handful of single letter
variable names while also trying to walk someone through an explanation of
multiple concepts.

Maybe just me? But feels like the above example might be explained a bit better
if we used more complete variable names so the explanation could have a better
flow (without trying to remember what each of the single-letter variables meant)
/JT --->
<!-- Totally valid! I've changed the variable names in this, previous, and
following examples, broke up these paragraphs a bit, and added wingdings.
/Carol -->

The code that calls this code will then handle getting either an `Ok` value
that contains a username or an `Err` value that contains an `io::Error`. It’s
up to the calling code to decide what to do with those values. If the calling
code gets an `Err` value, it could call `panic!` and crash the program, use a
default username, or look up the username from somewhere other than a file, for
example. We don’t have enough information on what the calling code is actually
trying to do, so we propagate all the success or error information upward for
it to handle appropriately.

This pattern of propagating errors is so common in Rust that Rust provides the
question mark operator `?` to make this easier.

#### A Shortcut for Propagating Errors: the `?` Operator

Listing 9-7 shows an implementation of `read_username_from_file` that has the
same functionality as in Listing 9-6, but this implementation uses the
`?` operator.

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use std::fs::File;
use std::io;
use std::io::Read;

fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> {
    let mut username_file = File::open("hello.txt")?;
    let mut username = String::new();
    username_file.read_to_string(&mut username)?;
    Ok(username)
}
```

Listing 9-7: A function that returns errors to the calling code using the `?`
operator

The `?` placed after a `Result` value is defined to work in almost the same way
as the `match` expressions we defined to handle the `Result` values in Listing
9-6. If the value of the `Result` is an `Ok`, the value inside the `Ok` will
get returned from this expression, and the program will continue. If the value
is an `Err`, the `Err` will be returned from the whole function as if we had
used the `return` keyword so the error value gets propagated to the calling
code.

There is a difference between what the `match` expression from Listing 9-6 does
and what the `?` operator does: error values that have the `?` operator called
on them go through the `from` function, defined in the `From` trait in the
standard library, which is used to convert values from one type into another.
When the `?` operator calls the `from` function, the error type received is
converted into the error type defined in the return type of the current
function. This is useful when a function returns one error type to represent
all the ways a function might fail, even if parts might fail for many different
reasons.

For example, we could change the `read_username_from_file` function in Listing
9-7 to return a custom error type named `OurError` that we define. If we also
define `impl From<io::Error> for OurError` to construct an instance of
`OurError` from an `io::Error`, then the `?` operator calls in the body of
`read_username_from_file` will call `from` and convert the error types without
needing to add any more code to the function.

<!---
It's a bit fuzzy what `impl From<OtherError> for ReturnedError` means. We may
want to use a more concrete example, like: `impl From<OurError> for io::Error`.
/JT --->
<!-- I've added a more concrete example here, but converting the other way,
which I think is more likely in production code /Carol -->

In the context of Listing 9-7, the `?` at the end of the `File::open` call will
return the value inside an `Ok` to the variable `username_file`. If an error
occurs, the `?` operator will return early out of the whole function and give
any `Err` value to the calling code. The same thing applies to the `?` at the
end of the `read_to_string` call.

The `?` operator eliminates a lot of boilerplate and makes this function’s
implementation simpler. We could even shorten this code further by chaining
method calls immediately after the `?`, as shown in Listing 9-8.

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use std::fs::File;
use std::io;
use std::io::Read;

fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> {
    let mut username = String::new();

    File::open("hello.txt")?.read_to_string(&mut username)?;

    Ok(username)
}
```

Listing 9-8: Chaining method calls after the `?` operator

We’ve moved the creation of the new `String` in `username` to the beginning of
the function; that part hasn’t changed. Instead of creating a variable
`username_file`, we’ve chained the call to `read_to_string` directly onto the
result of `File::open("hello.txt")?`. We still have a `?` at the end of the
`read_to_string` call, and we still return an `Ok` value containing `username`
when both `File::open` and `read_to_string` succeed rather than returning
errors. The functionality is again the same as in Listing 9-6 and Listing 9-7;
this is just a different, more ergonomic way to write it.

Listing 9-9 shows a way to make this even shorter using `fs::read_to_string`.

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use std::fs;
use std::io;

fn read_username_from_file() -> Result<String, io::Error> {
    fs::read_to_string("hello.txt")
}
```

Listing 9-9: Using `fs::read_to_string` instead of opening and then reading the
file

Reading a file into a string is a fairly common operation, so the standard
library provides the convenient `fs::read_to_string` function that opens the
file, creates a new `String`, reads the contents of the file, puts the contents
into that `String`, and returns it. Of course, using `fs::read_to_string`
doesn’t give us the opportunity to explain all the error handling, so we did it
the longer way first.

#### Where The `?` Operator Can Be Used

The `?` operator can only be used in functions whose return type is compatible
with the value the `?` is used on. This is because the `?` operator is defined
to perform an early return of a value out of the function, in the same manner
as the `match` expression we defined in Listing 9-6. In Listing 9-6, the
`match` was using a `Result` value, and the early return arm returned an
`Err(e)` value. The return type of the function has to be a `Result` so that
it’s compatible with this `return`.

In Listing 9-10, let’s look at the error we’ll get if we use the `?` operator
in a `main` function with a return type incompatible with the type of the value
we use `?` on:

Filename: src/main.rs

```
use std::fs::File;

fn main() {
    let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?;
}
```

Listing 9-10: Attempting to use the `?` in the `main` function that returns
`()` won’t compile

This code opens a file, which might fail. The `?` operator follows the `Result`
value returned by `File::open`, but this `main` function has the return type of
`()`, not `Result`. When we compile this code, we get the following error
message:

```
error[E0277]: the `?` operator can only be used in a function that returns `Result` or `Option` (or another type that implements `FromResidual`)
   --> src/main.rs:4:36
    |
3   | / fn main() {
4   | |     let f = File::open("hello.txt")?;
    | |                                    ^ cannot use the `?` operator in a function that returns `()`
5   | | }
    | |_- this function should return `Result` or `Option` to accept `?`
    |
```

This error points out that we’re only allowed to use the `?` operator in a
function that returns `Result`, `Option`, or another type that implements
`FromResidual`.

To fix the error, you have two choices. One choice is to change the return type
of your function to be compatible with the value you’re using the `?` operator
on as long as you have no restrictions preventing that. The other technique is
to use a `match` or one of the `Result<T, E>` methods to handle the `Result<T,
E>` in whatever way is appropriate.

The error message also mentioned that `?` can be used with `Option<T>` values
as well. As with using `?` on `Result`, you can only use `?` on `Option` in a
function that returns an `Option`. The behavior of the `?` operator when called
on an `Option<T>` is similar to its behavior when called on a `Result<T, E>`:
if the value is `None`, the `None` will be returned early from the function at
that point. If the value is `Some`, the value inside the `Some` is the
resulting value of the expression and the function continues. Listing 9-11 has
an example of a function that finds the last character of the first line in the
given text:

```
fn last_char_of_first_line(text: &str) -> Option<char> {
    text.lines().next()?.chars().last()
}
```

Listing 9-11: Using the `?` operator on an `Option<T>` value

This function returns `Option<char>` because it’s possible that there is a
character there, but it’s also possible that there isn’t. This code takes the
`text` string slice argument and calls the `lines` method on it, which returns
an iterator over the lines in the string. Because this function wants to
examine the first line, it calls `next` on the iterator to get the first value
from the iterator. If `text` is the empty string, this call to `next` will
return `None`, in which case we use `?` to stop and return `None` from
`last_char_of_first_line`. If `text` is not the empty string, `next` will
return a `Some` value containing a string slice of the first line in `text`.

The `?` extracts the string slice, and we can call `chars` on that string slice
to get an iterator of its characters. We’re interested in the last character in
this first line, so we call `last` to return the last item in the iterator.
This is an `Option` because it’s possible that the first line is the empty
string, for example if `text` starts with a blank line but has characters on
other lines, as in `"\nhi"`. However, if there is a last character on the first
line, it will be returned in the `Some` variant. The `?` operator in the middle
gives us a concise way to express this logic, allowing us to implement the
function in one line. If we couldn’t use the `?` operator on `Option`, we’d
have to implement this logic using more method calls or a `match` expression.

Note that you can use the `?` operator on a `Result` in a function that returns
`Result`, and you can use the `?` operator on an `Option` in a function that
returns `Option`, but you can’t mix and match. The `?` operator won’t
automatically convert a `Result` to an `Option` or vice versa; in those cases,
you can use methods like the `ok` method on `Result` or the `ok_or` method on
`Option` to do the conversion explicitly.

So far, all the `main` functions we’ve used return `()`. The `main` function is
special because it’s the entry and exit point of executable programs, and there
are restrictions on what its return type can be for the programs to behave as
expected.

Luckily, `main` can also return a `Result<(), E>`. Listing 9-12 has the
code from Listing 9-10 but we’ve changed the return type of `main` to be
`Result<(), Box<dyn Error>>` and added a return value `Ok(())` to the end. This
code will now compile:

```
use std::error::Error;
use std::fs::File;

fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> {
    let greeting_file = File::open("hello.txt")?;

    Ok(())
}
```

<!---
The move to `Box<dyn Error>` isn't unexpected for an experienced Rust
developer, but I wonder if we should keep `std::io::Error` here to keep with
the flow of the previous examples?

I think my instinct was to mention this since we don't use the flexibility
the trait object gives us. Instead, we switch to explaining how exit codes
work with Result values.
/JT --->
<!-- The idea here was to give the reader code that will work in the future no
matter what errors they're trying to return from main. If we put in
std::io::Error, it'll work for this example, but probably not in the reader's
own projects. I've added a sentence to the end of the paragraph after Listing
9-12's caption to explain this thinking. /Carol -->

Listing 9-12: Changing `main` to return `Result<(), E>` allows the use of the
`?` operator on `Result` values

The `Box<dyn Error>` type is a *trait object*, which we’ll talk about in the
“Using Trait Objects that Allow for Values of Different Types” section in
Chapter 17. For now, you can read `Box<dyn Error>` to mean “any kind of error.”
Using `?` on a `Result` value in a `main` function with the error type `Box<dyn
Error>` is allowed, because it allows any `Err` value to be returned early.
Even though the body of this `main` function will only ever return errors of
type `std::io::Error`, by specifying `Box<dyn Error>`, this signature will
continue to be correct even if more code that returns other errors is added to
the body of `main`.

When a `main` function returns a `Result<(), E>`, the executable will
exit with a value of `0` if `main` returns `Ok(())` and will exit with a
nonzero value if `main` returns an `Err` value. Executables written in C return
integers when they exit: programs that exit successfully return the integer
`0`, and programs that error return some integer other than `0`. Rust also
returns integers from executables to be compatible with this convention.

The `main` function may return any types that implement the
`std::process::Termination` trait, which contains a function `report` that
returns an `ExitCode` Consult the standard library documentation for more
information on implementing the `Termination` trait for your own types.

Now that we’ve discussed the details of calling `panic!` or returning `Result`,
let’s return to the topic of how to decide which is appropriate to use in which
cases.

## To `panic!` or Not to `panic!`

So how do you decide when you should call `panic!` and when you should return
`Result`? When code panics, there’s no way to recover. You could call `panic!`
for any error situation, whether there’s a possible way to recover or not, but
then you’re making the decision that a situation is unrecoverable on behalf of
the calling code. When you choose to return a `Result` value, you give the
calling code options. The calling code could choose to attempt to recover in a
way that’s appropriate for its situation, or it could decide that an `Err`
value in this case is unrecoverable, so it can call `panic!` and turn your
recoverable error into an unrecoverable one. Therefore, returning `Result` is a
good default choice when you’re defining a function that might fail.

In situations such as examples, prototype code, and tests, it’s more
appropriate to write code that panics instead of returning a `Result`. Let’s
explore why, then discuss situations in which the compiler can’t tell that
failure is impossible, but you as a human can. The chapter will conclude with
some general guidelines on how to decide whether to panic in library code.

### Examples, Prototype Code, and Tests

When you’re writing an example to illustrate some concept, also including robust
error-handling code can make the example less clear. In
examples, it’s understood that a call to a method like `unwrap` that could
panic is meant as a placeholder for the way you’d want your application to
handle errors, which can differ based on what the rest of your code is doing.

Similarly, the `unwrap` and `expect` methods are very handy when prototyping,
before you’re ready to decide how to handle errors. They leave clear markers in
your code for when you’re ready to make your program more robust.

If a method call fails in a test, you’d want the whole test to fail, even if
that method isn’t the functionality under test. Because `panic!` is how a test
is marked as a failure, calling `unwrap` or `expect` is exactly what should
happen.

### Cases in Which You Have More Information Than the Compiler

It would also be appropriate to call `unwrap` or `expect` when you have some
other logic that ensures the `Result` will have an `Ok` value, but the logic
isn’t something the compiler understands. You’ll still have a `Result` value
that you need to handle: whatever operation you’re calling still has the
possibility of failing in general, even though it’s logically impossible in
your particular situation. If you can ensure by manually inspecting the code
that you’ll never have an `Err` variant, it’s perfectly acceptable to call
`unwrap`, and even better to document the reason you think you’ll never have an
`Err` variant in the `expect` text. Here’s an example:

<!---
Some Rust devs may have a nuanced take on the above, myself included. I'd say
you'd be safer to use `.expect(...)` and put as the argument the reason why it
should never fail. If, in the future it ever *does* fail for some reason
(probably as a result of many code fixes over time), then you've got a message
to start with telling you what the original expectation was.
/JT --->
<!-- I agree with this and reinforcing this best practice; I've changed the
`unwrap` to `expect` and demonstrated a good message. I still don't want to
shame people too much for using `unwrap`, though. /Carol -->

```
use std::net::IpAddr;

let home: IpAddr = "127.0.0.1"
    .parse()
    .expect("Hardcoded IP address should be valid");
```

We’re creating an `IpAddr` instance by parsing a hardcoded string. We can see
that `127.0.0.1` is a valid IP address, so it’s acceptable to use `expect`
here. However, having a hardcoded, valid string doesn’t change the return type
of the `parse` method: we still get a `Result` value, and the compiler will
still make us handle the `Result` as if the `Err` variant is a possibility
because the compiler isn’t smart enough to see that this string is always a
valid IP address. If the IP address string came from a user rather than being
hardcoded into the program and therefore *did* have a possibility of failure,
we’d definitely want to handle the `Result` in a more robust way instead.
Mentioning the assumption that this IP address is hardcoded will prompt us to
change `expect` to better error handling code if in the future, we need to get
the IP address from some other source instead.

### Guidelines for Error Handling

It’s advisable to have your code panic when it’s possible that your code
could end up in a bad state. In this context, a *bad state* is when some
assumption, guarantee, contract, or invariant has been broken, such as when
invalid values, contradictory values, or missing values are passed to your
code—plus one or more of the following:

* The bad state is something that is unexpected, as opposed to something that
  will likely happen occasionally, like a user entering data in the wrong
  format.
* Your code after this point needs to rely on not being in this bad state,
  rather than checking for the problem at every step.
* There’s not a good way to encode this information in the types you use. We’ll
  work through an example of what we mean in the “Encoding States and Behavior
  as Types” section of Chapter 17.

If someone calls your code and passes in values that don’t make sense, it’s
best to return an error if you can so the user of the library can decide what
they want to do in that case. However, in cases where continuing could be
insecure or harmful, the best choice might be to call `panic!` and alert the
person using your library to the bug in their code so they can fix it during
development. Similarly, `panic!` is often appropriate if you’re calling
external code that is out of your control and it returns an invalid state that
you have no way of fixing.

<!---
Disagree a bit with the above. I don't think libraries should ever panic. They
should always be written defensively so they can be used in a broader range of
applications, which include applications where crashing could result in data
loss.

Rather than crashing, libraries can encode the reasons they failed based on the
user's input into an error that can be returned to the user.

In practice, the only time the application should absolutely crash is if
continuing could bring harm to the user's machine, their data, filesystem, and
so on. Otherwise, the user should just be given a warning that the operation
couldn't be completed successfully, so they can take their next action. If we
crash, unfortunately the user never gets that choice.
/JT --->
<!-- I think we actually agree here but the original text wasn't clear enough;
I've edited. /Carol -->

However, when failure is expected, it’s more appropriate to return a `Result`
than to make a `panic!` call. Examples include a parser being given malformed
data or an HTTP request returning a status that indicates you have hit a rate
limit. In these cases, returning a `Result` indicates that failure is an
expected possibility that the calling code must decide how to handle.

When your code performs an operation that could put a user at risk if it’s
called using invalid values, your code should verify the values are valid first
and panic if the values aren’t valid. This is mostly for safety reasons:
attempting to operate on invalid data can expose your code to vulnerabilities.
This is the main reason the standard library will call `panic!` if you attempt
an out-of-bounds memory access: trying to access memory that doesn’t belong to
the current data structure is a common security problem. Functions often have
*contracts*: their behavior is only guaranteed if the inputs meet particular
requirements. Panicking when the contract is violated makes sense because a
contract violation always indicates a caller-side bug and it’s not a kind of
error you want the calling code to have to explicitly handle. In fact, there’s
no reasonable way for calling code to recover; the calling *programmers* need
to fix the code. Contracts for a function, especially when a violation will
cause a panic, should be explained in the API documentation for the function.

<!---
The wording of the first sentence in the above paragraph reads like we should
panic on invalid data, but in the previous paragraph we say malformed data
should be a `Result`. The rest makes sense, where the spirit of when the stdlib
panics is less about invalid data and more about when the user will be put at
risk.
/JT --->
<!-- I think we were trying to draw a distinction between "malformed" and
"invalid" values that perhaps wasn't very clear. I've tried to clarify by
adding "could put a user at risk", but I don't really want to get into the
specifics of this because only a subset of readers will be writing code like
this... /Carol -->

However, having lots of error checks in all of your functions would be verbose
and annoying. Fortunately, you can use Rust’s type system (and thus the type
checking done by the compiler) to do many of the checks for you. If your
function has a particular type as a parameter, you can proceed with your code’s
logic knowing that the compiler has already ensured you have a valid value. For
example, if you have a type rather than an `Option`, your program expects to
have *something* rather than *nothing*. Your code then doesn’t have to handle
two cases for the `Some` and `None` variants: it will only have one case for
definitely having a value. Code trying to pass nothing to your function won’t
even compile, so your function doesn’t have to check for that case at runtime.
Another example is using an unsigned integer type such as `u32`, which ensures
the parameter is never negative.

### Creating Custom Types for Validation

Let’s take the idea of using Rust’s type system to ensure we have a valid value
one step further and look at creating a custom type for validation. Recall the
guessing game in Chapter 2 in which our code asked the user to guess a number
between 1 and 100. We never validated that the user’s guess was between those
numbers before checking it against our secret number; we only validated that
the guess was positive. In this case, the consequences were not very dire: our
output of “Too high” or “Too low” would still be correct. But it would be a
useful enhancement to guide the user toward valid guesses and have different
behavior when a user guesses a number that’s out of range versus when a user
types, for example, letters instead.

One way to do this would be to parse the guess as an `i32` instead of only a
`u32` to allow potentially negative numbers, and then add a check for the
number being in range, like so:

```
loop {
    // --snip--

    let guess: i32 = match guess.trim().parse() {
        Ok(num) => num,
        Err(_) => continue,
    };

    if guess < 1 || guess > 100 {
        println!("The secret number will be between 1 and 100.");
        continue;
    }

    match guess.cmp(&secret_number) {
        // --snip--
}
```

The `if` expression checks whether our value is out of range, tells the user
about the problem, and calls `continue` to start the next iteration of the loop
and ask for another guess. After the `if` expression, we can proceed with the
comparisons between `guess` and the secret number knowing that `guess` is
between 1 and 100.

However, this is not an ideal solution: if it was absolutely critical that the
program only operated on values between 1 and 100, and it had many functions
with this requirement, having a check like this in every function would be
tedious (and might impact performance).

Instead, we can make a new type and put the validations in a function to create
an instance of the type rather than repeating the validations everywhere. That
way, it’s safe for functions to use the new type in their signatures and
confidently use the values they receive. Listing 9-13 shows one way to define a
`Guess` type that will only create an instance of `Guess` if the `new` function
receives a value between 1 and 100.

```
pub struct Guess {
    value: i32,
}

impl Guess {
    pub fn new(value: i32) -> Guess {
        if value < 1 || value > 100 {
            panic!("Guess value must be between 1 and 100, got {}.", value);
        }

        Guess { value }
    }

    pub fn value(&self) -> i32 {
        self.value
    }
}
```

<!---
The above example feels a bit off to me. We talk earlier about user input being
a prime candidate for recoverable errors, and then we talk about encoding only
proper states in the type system. But this examples seems to work with user
input and panic if it's not correct, rather than using recoverable errors or
encoding the state into the type.

Maybe you could have them guess rock/paper/scissors and encode the
rock/paper/scissor as three enum values, and if they type something outside of
that, we don't allow it. Otherwise we create an enum of that value.
/JT --->
<!-- The point about this listing panicking is valid, but I disagree a little.
I think this is encoding only valid states into the type system. Also, Chapter
11 builds on this example to show how to use `should_panic`, so I'm going to
leave this the way it is. /Carol -->

Listing 9-13: A `Guess` type that will only continue with values between 1 and
100

First, we define a struct named `Guess` that has a field named `value` that
holds an `i32`. This is where the number will be stored.

Then we implement an associated function named `new` on `Guess` that creates
instances of `Guess` values. The `new` function is defined to have one
parameter named `value` of type `i32` and to return a `Guess`. The code in the
body of the `new` function tests `value` to make sure it’s between 1 and 100.
If `value` doesn’t pass this test, we make a `panic!` call, which will alert
the programmer who is writing the calling code that they have a bug they need
to fix, because creating a `Guess` with a `value` outside this range would
violate the contract that `Guess::new` is relying on. The conditions in which
`Guess::new` might panic should be discussed in its public-facing API
documentation; we’ll cover documentation conventions indicating the possibility
of a `panic!` in the API documentation that you create in Chapter 14. If
`value` does pass the test, we create a new `Guess` with its `value` field set
to the `value` parameter and return the `Guess`.

Next, we implement a method named `value` that borrows `self`, doesn’t have any
other parameters, and returns an `i32`. This kind of method is sometimes called
a *getter*, because its purpose is to get some data from its fields and return
it. This public method is necessary because the `value` field of the `Guess`
struct is private. It’s important that the `value` field be private so code
using the `Guess` struct is not allowed to set `value` directly: code outside
the module *must* use the `Guess::new` function to create an instance of
`Guess`, thereby ensuring there’s no way for a `Guess` to have a `value` that
hasn’t been checked by the conditions in the `Guess::new` function.

A function that has a parameter or returns only numbers between 1 and 100 could
then declare in its signature that it takes or returns a `Guess` rather than an
`i32` and wouldn’t need to do any additional checks in its body.

## Summary

Rust’s error handling features are designed to help you write more robust code.
The `panic!` macro signals that your program is in a state it can’t handle and
lets you tell the process to stop instead of trying to proceed with invalid or
incorrect values. The `Result` enum uses Rust’s type system to indicate that
operations might fail in a way that your code could recover from. You can use
`Result` to tell code that calls your code that it needs to handle potential
success or failure as well. Using `panic!` and `Result` in the appropriate
situations will make your code more reliable in the face of inevitable problems.

Now that you’ve seen useful ways that the standard library uses generics with
the `Option` and `Result` enums, we’ll talk about how generics work and how you
can use them in your code.

<!---
A meta comment: the coverage of `panic!` here feels helpful in terms of giving
a more complete understanding of Rust, but in practice (and this may depend
on domain), using `panic!` should be a fairly limited thing.

Something I noticed we don't touch on but may want to is panic hooks, as
unrecoverable errors isn't exactly true. You can recover from an unwinding
panic if you need to code defensively against, say, a dependency panicking and
you don't want your app to go down as a result.
/JT --->
<!-- Yeahhh I don't want to mention panic hooks, one because I don't think most
people will need to think about them or implement one, and two because a subset
of people will look at that and think "oh look, exception handling!" which...
is not what it's for. /Carol -->
