book/nostarch/appendix.md

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[TOC]

## Appendix A: Keywords

The following lists contain keywords that are reserved for current or future
use by the Rust language. As such, they cannot be used as identifiers (except
as raw identifiers, as we’ll discuss in “Raw Identifiers” on page XX).
*Identifiers* are names of functions, variables, parameters, struct fields,
modules, crates, constants, macros, static values, attributes, types, traits,
or lifetimes.

## Keywords Currently in Use

The following is a list of keywords currently in use, with their functionality
described.

* **`as` **: perform primitive casting, disambiguate the specific trait
containing an item, or rename items in `use` statements
* **`async` **: return a `Future` instead of blocking the current thread
* **`await` **: suspend execution until the result of a `Future` is ready
* **`break` **: exit a loop immediately
* **`const` **: define constant items or constant raw pointers
* **`continue` **: continue to the next loop iteration
* **`crate` **: in a module path, refers to the crate root
* **`dyn` **: dynamic dispatch to a trait object
* **`else` **: fallback for `if` and `if let` control flow constructs
* **`enum` **: define an enumeration
* **`extern` **: link an external function or variable
* **`false` **: Boolean false literal
* **`fn` **: define a function or the function pointer type
* **`for` **: loop over items from an iterator, implement a trait, or specify a
higher-ranked lifetime
* **`if` **: branch based on the result of a conditional expression
* **`impl` **: implement inherent or trait functionality
* **`in` **: part of `for` loop syntax
* **`let` **: bind a variable
* **`loop` **: loop unconditionally
* **`match` **: match a value to patterns
* **`mod` **: define a module
* **`move` **: make a closure take ownership of all its captures
* **`mut` **: denote mutability in references, raw pointers, or pattern bindings
* **`pub` **: denote public visibility in struct fields, `impl` blocks, or
modules
* **`ref` **: bind by reference
* **`return` **: return from function
* **`Self` **: a type alias for the type we are defining or implementing
* **`self` **: method subject or current module
* **`static` **: global variable or lifetime lasting the entire program
execution
* **`struct` **: define a structure
* **`super` **: parent module of the current module
* **`trait` **: define a trait
* **`true` **: Boolean true literal
* **`type` **: define a type alias or associated type
* **`union` **: define a union; is a keyword only when used in a union
declaration
* **`unsafe` **: denote unsafe code, functions, traits, or implementations
* **`use` **: bring symbols into scope
* **`where` **: denote clauses that constrain a type
* **`while` **: loop conditionally based on the result of an expression

## Keywords Reserved for Future Use

The following keywords do not yet have any functionality but are reserved by
Rust for potential future use:

* `abstract`
* `become`
* `box`
* `do`
* `final`
* `macro`
* `override`
* `priv`
* `try`
* `typeof`
* `unsized`
* `virtual`
* `yield`

## Raw Identifiers

*Raw identifiers* are the syntax that lets you use keywords where they wouldn’t
normally be allowed. You use a raw identifier by prefixing a keyword with `r#`.

For example, `match` is a keyword. If you try to compile the following function
that uses `match` as its name:

Filename: src/main.rs

```
fn match(needle: &str, haystack: &str) -> bool {
    haystack.contains(needle)
}
```

you’ll get this error:

```
error: expected identifier, found keyword `match`
 --> src/main.rs:4:4
  |
4 | fn match(needle: &str, haystack: &str) -> bool {
  |    ^^^^^ expected identifier, found keyword
```

The error shows that you can’t use the keyword `match` as the function
identifier. To use `match` as a function name, you need to use the raw
identifier syntax, like this:

Filename: src/main.rs

```
fn r#match(needle: &str, haystack: &str) -> bool {
    haystack.contains(needle)
}

fn main() {
    assert!(r#match("foo", "foobar"));
}
```

This code will compile without any errors. Note the `r#` prefix on the function
name in its definition as well as where the function is called in `main`.

Raw identifiers allow you to use any word you choose as an identifier, even if
that word happens to be a reserved keyword. This gives us more freedom to
choose identifier names, as well as lets us integrate with programs written in
a language where these words aren’t keywords. In addition, raw identifiers
allow you to use libraries written in a different Rust edition than your crate
uses. For example, `try` isn’t a keyword in the 2015 edition but is in the 2018
and 2021 editions. If you depend on a library that is written using the 2015
edition and has a `try` function, you’ll need to use the raw identifier syntax,
`r#try` in this case, to call that function from your 2021 edition code. See
Appendix E for more information on editions.

## Appendix B: Operators and Symbols

This appendix contains a glossary of Rust’s syntax, including operators and
other symbols that appear by themselves or in the context of paths, generics,
trait bounds, macros, attributes, comments, tuples, and brackets.

## Operators

Table B-1 contains the operators in Rust, an example of how the operator would
appear in context, a short explanation, and whether that operator is
overloadable. If an operator is overloadable, the relevant trait to use to
overload that operator is listed.

Table B-1: Operators

| Operator | Example | Explanation | Overloadable? |
|---|---|---|---|
| `!` | `ident!(...)`, `ident!{...}`, `ident![...]` | Macro expansion |  |
| `!` | `!expr` | Bitwise or logical complement | `Not` |
| `!=` | `expr != expr` | Nonequality comparison | `PartialEq` |
| `% | `expr % expr` | Arithmetic remainder | `Rem` |
| `%=` | `var %= expr` | Arithmetic remainder and assignment | `RemAssign` |
| `& | `&expr`, `&mut expr` | Borrow |  |
| `&` | `&type`, `&mut type`, `&'a type`, `&'a mut type` | Borrowed pointer
type |  |
| `&` | `expr & expr` | Bitwise AND | `BitAnd` |
| `&=` | `var &= expr` | Bitwise AND and assignment | `BitAndAssign` |
| `&&` | `expr && expr` | Short-circuiting logical AND |  |
| `* | `expr * expr` | Arithmetic multiplication | `Mul` |
| `*=` | `var *= expr` | Arithmetic multiplication and assignment | `MulAssign`
|
| `*` | `*expr` | Dereference | `Deref` |
| `*` | `*const type`, `*mut type | Raw pointer |  |
| `+ | `trait + trait`, `'a + trait` | Compound type constraint |  |
| `+ | `expr + expr` | Arithmetic addition | `Add` |
| `+=` | `var += expr` | Arithmetic addition and assignment | `AddAssign` |
| `,` | `expr, expr` | Argument and element separator |  |
| `- | `- expr` | Arithmetic negation | `Neg` |
| `- | `expr - expr` | Arithmetic subtraction | `Sub` |
| `-=` | `var -= expr` | Arithmetic subtraction and assignment | `SubAssign` |
| `-> | `fn(...) -> type`, `|…| -> type` | Function and closure return type |  |
| `.  | `expr.ident` | Member access |  |
| `..` | `..`, `expr..`, `..expr`, `expr..expr` | Right-exclusive range literal
| `PartialOrd` |
| `..=` | `..=expr`, `expr..=expr` | Right-inclusive range literal |
`PartialOrd` |
| `..` | `..expr` | Struct literal update syntax |  |
| `..` | `variant(x, ..)`, `struct_type { x, .. }` | “And the rest” pattern
binding |  |
| `...` | `expr...expr` | (Deprecated, use `..=` instead) In a pattern:
inclusive range pattern |  |
| `/ | `expr / expr` | Arithmetic division | `Div` |
| `/=` | `var /= expr` | Arithmetic division and assignment | `DivAssign` |
| `:  | `pat: type`, `ident: type` | Constraints |  |
| `:` | `ident: expr` | Struct field initializer |  |
| `:` | `'a: loop {...}` | Loop label |  |
| `; | `expr;` | Statement and item terminator |  |
| `;` | `[...; len]` | Part of fixed-size array syntax |  |
| `<<` | `expr << expr` | Left-shift | `Shl` |
| `<<=` | `var <<= expr` | Left-shift and assignment | `ShlAssign` |
| `<` | `expr < expr` | Less than comparison | `PartialOrd` |
| `<=` | `expr <= expr` | Less than or equal to comparison | `PartialOrd` |
| `=` | `var = expr`, `ident = type` | Assignment/equivalence |  |
| `==` | `expr == expr` | Equality comparison | `PartialEq` |
| `=>` | `pat => expr` | Part of match arm syntax |  |
| `>` | `expr > expr` | Greater than comparison | `PartialOrd` |
| `>=` | `expr >= expr` | Greater than or equal to comparison | `PartialOrd` |
| `>>` | `expr >> expr` | Right-shift | `Shr` |
| `>>=` | `var >>= expr` | Right-shift and assignment | `ShrAssign` |
| `@ | `ident @ pat` | Pattern binding |  |
| `^` | `expr ^ expr` | Bitwise exclusive OR | `BitXor` |
| `^=` | `var ^= expr` | Bitwise exclusive OR and assignment | `BitXorAssign` |
| `| | `pat | pat` | Pattern alternatives |  |
| `|` | `expr | expr` | Bitwise OR | `BitOr` |
| `|=` | `var |= expr` | Bitwise OR and assignment | `BitOrAssign` |
| `||` | `expr || expr` | Short-circuiting logical OR |  |
| `? | `expr?` | Error propagation |  |

## Non-operator Symbols

The following tables contain all symbols that don’t function as operators; that
is, they don’t behave like a function or method call.

Table B-2 shows symbols that appear on their own and are valid in a variety of
locations.

Table B-2: Stand-Alone Syntax

| Symbol | Explanation |
|---|---|
| `'ident | Named lifetime or loop label |
| `...u8`, `...i32`, `...f64`, `...usize`, and so on | Numeric literal of
specific type |
| `"..." | String literal |
| `r"..."`, `r#"..."#`, `r##"..."##`, and so on | Raw string literal; escape
characters not processed |
| `b"..."` | Byte string literal; constructs an array of bytes instead of a
string |
| `br"..."`, `br#"..."#`, `br##"..."##`, and so on | Raw byte string literal;
combination of raw and byte string literal |
| `'...' | Character literal |
| `b'...' | ASCII byte literal |
| `|…| expr | Closure |
| `! | Always-empty bottom type for diverging functions |
| `_ | “Ignored” pattern binding; also used to make integer literals readable |

Table B-3 shows symbols that appear in the context of a path through the module
hierarchy to an item.

Table B-3: Path-Related Syntax

| Symbol | Explanation |
|---|---|
| `ident::ident | Namespace path |
| `::path` | Path relative to the crate root (that is, an explicitly absolute
path) |
| `self::path` | Path relative to the current module (that is, an explicitly
relative path) |
| `super::path` | Path relative to the parent of the current module |
| `type::ident`, `<type as trait>::ident | Associated constants, functions, and
types |
| `<type>::...` | Associated item for a type that cannot be directly named (for
example, `<&T>::...`, `<[T]>::...`, and so on) |
| `trait::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the trait that
defines it |
| `type::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the type for
which it’s defined |
| `<type as trait>::method(...)` | Disambiguating a method call by naming the
trait and type |

Table B-4 shows symbols that appear in the context of using generic type
parameters.

Table B-4: Generics

| Symbol | Explanation |
|---|---|
| `path<...>` | Specifies parameters to a generic type in a type (for example,
`Vec<u8>`) |
| `path::<...>, method::<...>` | Specifies parameters to a generic type,
function, or method in an expression; often referred to as turbofish (for
example, `"42".parse::<i32>()`) |
| `fn ident<...> ...` | Define generic function |
| `struct ident<...> ...` | Define generic structure |
| `enum ident<...> ...` | Define generic enumeration |
| `impl<...> ...` | Define generic implementation |
| `for<...> type` | Higher-ranked lifetime bounds |
| `type<ident=type>` | A generic type where one or more associated types have
specific assignments (for example, `Iterator<Item=T>`) |

Table B-5 shows symbols that appear in the context of constraining generic type
parameters with trait bounds.

Table B-5: Trait Bound Constraints

| Symbol | Explanation |
|---|---|
| T: U` | Generic parameter `T` constrained to types that implement `U` |
| `T: 'a` | Generic type `T` must outlive lifetime `'a` (meaning the type
cannot transitively contain any references with lifetimes shorter than `'a`) |
| `T: 'static` | Generic type `T` contains no borrowed references other than
`'static` ones |
| `'b: 'a` | Generic lifetime `'b` must outlive lifetime `'a` |
| `T: ?Sized` | Allow generic type parameter to be a dynamically sized type |
| `'a + trait`, `trait + trait` | Compound type constraint |

Table B-6 shows symbols that appear in the context of calling or defining
macros and specifying attributes on an item.

Table B-6: Macros and Attributes

| Symbol | Explanation |
|---|---|
| `#[meta]` | Outer attribute |
| `#![meta]` | Inner attribute |
| `$ident` | Macro substitution |
| `$ident:kind` | Macro capture |
| `$(…)…` | Macro repetition |
| `ident!(...)`, `ident!{...}`, `ident![...]` | Macro invocation |

Table B-7 shows symbols that create comments.

Table B-7: Comments

| Symbol | Explanation |
|---|---|
| `//` | Line comment |
| `//!` | Inner line doc comment |
| `///` | Outer line doc comment |
| `/*...*/` | Block comment |
| `/*!...*/` | Inner block doc comment |
| `/**...*/` | Outer block doc comment |

Table B-8 shows symbols that appear in the context of using tuples.

Table B-8: Tuples

| Symbol | Explanation |
|---|---|
| `() | Empty tuple (aka unit), both literal and type |
| `(expr)` | Parenthesized expression |
| `(expr,)` | Single-element tuple expression |
| `(type,)` | Single-element tuple type |
| `(expr, ...)` | Tuple expression |
| `(type, ...)` | Tuple type |
| `expr(expr, ...)` | Function call expression; also used to initialize tuple
`struct`s and tuple `enum` variants |
| `expr.0`, `expr.1`, and so on | Tuple indexing |

Table B-9 shows the contexts in which curly brackets are used.

Table B-9: Curly Brackets

| Context | Explanation |
|---|---|
| `{...}` | Block expression |
| `Type {...}` | `struct` literal |

Table B-10 shows the contexts in which square brackets are used.

Table B-10: Square Brackets

| Context | Explanation |
|---|---|
| `[...]` | Array literal |
| `[expr; len]` | Array literal containing `len` copies of `expr` |
| `[type; len]` | Array type containing `len` instances of `type` |
| `expr[expr]` | Collection indexing; overloadable (`Index`, `IndexMut`) |
| `expr[..]`, `expr[a..]`, `expr[..b]`, `expr[a..b]` | Collection indexing
pretending to be collection slicing, using `Range`, `RangeFrom`, `RangeTo`, or
`RangeFull` as the “index” |

## Appendix C: Derivable Traits

In various places in the book, we’ve discussed the `derive` attribute, which
you can apply to a struct or enum definition. The `derive` attribute generates
code that will implement a trait with its own default implementation on the
type you’ve annotated with the `derive` syntax.

In this appendix, we provide a reference of all the traits in the standard
library that you can use with `derive`. Each section covers:

* What operators and methods deriving this trait will enable
* What the implementation of the trait provided by `derive` does
* What implementing the trait signifies about the type
* The conditions in which you’re allowed or not allowed to implement the trait
* Examples of operations that require the trait

If you want different behavior from that provided by the `derive` attribute,
consult the standard library documentation for each trait for details on how to
manually implement them.

The traits listed here are the only ones defined by the standard library that
can be implemented on your types using `derive`. Other traits defined in the
standard library don’t have sensible default behavior, so it’s up to you to
implement them in the way that makes sense for what you’re trying to accomplish.

An example of a trait that can’t be derived is `Display`, which handles
formatting for end users. You should always consider the appropriate way to
display a type to an end user. What parts of the type should an end user be
allowed to see? What parts would they find relevant? What format of the data
would be most relevant to them? The Rust compiler doesn’t have this insight, so
it can’t provide appropriate default behavior for you.

The list of derivable traits provided in this appendix is not comprehensive:
libraries can implement `derive` for their own traits, making the list of
traits you can use `derive` with truly open ended. Implementing `derive`
involves using a procedural macro, which is covered in “Macros” on page XX.

## Debug for Programmer Output

The `Debug` trait enables debug formatting in format strings, which you
indicate by adding `:?` within `{}` placeholders.

The `Debug` trait allows you to print instances of a type for debugging
purposes, so you and other programmers using your type can inspect an instance
at a particular point in a program’s execution.

The `Debug` trait is required, for example, in the use of the `assert_eq!`
macro. This macro prints the values of instances given as arguments if the
equality assertion fails so programmers can see why the two instances weren’t
equal.

## PartialEq and Eq for Equality Comparisons

The `PartialEq` trait allows you to compare instances of a type to check for
equality and enables use of the `==` and `!=` operators.

Deriving `PartialEq` implements the `eq` method. When `PartialEq` is derived on
structs, two instances are equal only if *all* fields are equal, and the
instances are not equal if any fields are not equal. When derived on enums,
each variant is equal to itself and not equal to the other variants.

The `PartialEq` trait is required, for example, with the use of the
`assert_eq!` macro, which needs to be able to compare two instances of a type
for equality.

The `Eq` trait has no methods. Its purpose is to signal that for every value of
the annotated type, the value is equal to itself. The `Eq` trait can only be
applied to types that also implement `PartialEq`, although not all types that
implement `PartialEq` can implement `Eq`. One example of this is floating-point
number types: the implementation of floating-point numbers states that two
instances of the not-a-number (`NaN`) value are not equal to each other.

An example of when `Eq` is required is for keys in a `HashMap<K, V>` so that
the `HashMap<K, V>` can tell whether two keys are the same.

## PartialOrd and Ord for Ordering Comparisons

The `PartialOrd` trait allows you to compare instances of a type for sorting
purposes. A type that implements `PartialOrd` can be used with the `<`, `>`,
`<=`, and `>=` operators. You can only apply the `PartialOrd` trait to types
that also implement `PartialEq`.

Deriving `PartialOrd` implements the `partial_cmp` method, which returns an
`Option<Ordering>` that will be `None` when the values given don’t produce an
ordering. An example of a value that doesn’t produce an ordering, even though
most values of that type can be compared, is the not-a-number (`NaN`) floating
point value. Calling `partial_cmp` with any floating-point number and the `NaN`
floating-point value will return `None`.

When derived on structs, `PartialOrd` compares two instances by comparing the
value in each field in the order in which the fields appear in the struct
definition. When derived on enums, variants of the enum declared earlier in the
enum definition are considered less than the variants listed later.

The `PartialOrd` trait is required, for example, for the `gen_range` method
from the `rand` crate that generates a random value in the range specified by a
range expression.

The `Ord` trait allows you to know that for any two values of the annotated
type, a valid ordering will exist. The `Ord` trait implements the `cmp` method,
which returns an `Ordering` rather than an `Option<Ordering>` because a valid
ordering will always be possible. You can only apply the `Ord` trait to types
that also implement `PartialOrd` and `Eq` (and `Eq` requires `PartialEq`). When
derived on structs and enums, `cmp` behaves the same way as the derived
implementation for `partial_cmp` does with `PartialOrd`.

An example of when `Ord` is required is when storing values in a `BTreeSet<T>`,
a data structure that stores data based on the sort order of the values.

## Clone and Copy for Duplicating Values

The `Clone` trait allows you to explicitly create a deep copy of a value, and
the duplication process might involve running arbitrary code and copying heap
data. See “Variables and Data Interacting with Clone” on page XX for more
information on `Clone`.

Deriving `Clone` implements the `clone` method, which when implemented for the
whole type, calls `clone` on each of the parts of the type. This means all the
fields or values in the type must also implement `Clone` to derive `Clone`.

An example of when `Clone` is required is when calling the `to_vec` method on a
slice. The slice doesn’t own the type instances it contains, but the vector
returned from `to_vec` will need to own its instances, so `to_vec` calls
`clone` on each item. Thus the type stored in the slice must implement `Clone`.

The `Copy` trait allows you to duplicate a value by only copying bits stored on
the stack; no arbitrary code is necessary. See “Stack-Only Data: Copy” on page
XX for more information on `Copy`.

The `Copy` trait doesn’t define any methods to prevent programmers from
overloading those methods and violating the assumption that no arbitrary code
is being run. That way, all programmers can assume that copying a value will be
very fast.

You can derive `Copy` on any type whose parts all implement `Copy`. A type that
implements `Copy` must also implement `Clone` because a type that implements
`Copy` has a trivial implementation of `Clone` that performs the same task as
`Copy`.

The `Copy` trait is rarely required; types that implement `Copy` have
optimizations available, meaning you don’t have to call `clone`, which makes
the code more concise.

Everything possible with `Copy` you can also accomplish with `Clone`, but the
code might be slower or have to use `clone` in places.

## Hash for Mapping a Value to a Value of Fixed Size

The `Hash` trait allows you to take an instance of a type of arbitrary size and
map that instance to a value of fixed size using a hash function. Deriving
`Hash` implements the `hash` method. The derived implementation of the `hash`
method combines the result of calling `hash` on each of the parts of the type,
meaning all fields or values must also implement `Hash` to derive `Hash`.

An example of when `Hash` is required is in storing keys in a `HashMap<K, V>`
to store data efficiently.

## Default for Default Values

The `Default` trait allows you to create a default value for a type. Deriving
`Default` implements the `default` function. The derived implementation of the
`default` function calls the `default` function on each part of the type,
meaning all fields or values in the type must also implement `Default` to
derive `Default`.

The `Default::default` function is commonly used in combination with the struct
update syntax discussed in “Creating Instances from Other Instances with Struct
Update Syntax” on page XX. You can customize a few fields of a struct and then
set and use a default value for the rest of the fields by using
`..Default::default()`.

The `Default` trait is required when you use the method `unwrap_or_default` on
`Option<T>` instances, for example. If the `Option<T>` is `None`, the method
`unwrap_or_default` will return the result of `Default::default` for the type
`T` stored in the `Option<T>`.

## Appendix D: Useful Development Tools

In this appendix, we talk about some useful development tools that the Rust
project provides. We’ll look at automatic formatting, quick ways to apply
warning fixes, a linter, and integrating with IDEs.

## Automatic Formatting with rustfmt

The `rustfmt` tool reformats your code according to the community code style.
Many collaborative projects use `rustfmt` to prevent arguments about which
style to use when writing Rust: everyone formats their code using the tool.

Rust installations include `rustfmt` by default, so you should already have the
programs `rustfmt` and `cargo-fmt` on your system. These two commands are
analagous to `rustc` and `cargo` in that `rustfmt` allows finer-grained control
and `cargo-fmt` understands conventions of a project that uses Cargo. To format
any Cargo project, enter the following:

```
$ cargo fmt
```

Running this command reformats all the Rust code in the current crate. This
should only change the code style, not the code semantics. For more information
on `rustfmt`, see its documentation at *https://github.com/rust-lang/rustfmt*.

## Fix Your Code with rustfix

The `rustfix` tool is included with Rust installations and can automatically
fix compiler warnings that have a clear way to correct the problem that’s
likely what you want. You’ve probably seen compiler warnings before. For
example, consider this code:

Filename: src/main.rs

```
fn do_something() {}

fn main() {
    for i in 0..100 {
        do_something();
    }
}
```

Here, we’re calling the `do_something` function 100 times, but we never use the
variable `i` in the body of the `for` loop. Rust warns us about that:

```
$ cargo build
   Compiling myprogram v0.1.0 (file:///projects/myprogram)
warning: unused variable: `i`
 --> src/main.rs:4:9
  |
4 |     for i in 0..100 {
  |         ^ help: consider using `_i` instead
  |
  = note: #[warn(unused_variables)] on by default

    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.50s
```

The warning suggests that we use `_i` as a name instead: the underscore
indicates that we intend for this variable to be unused. We can automatically
apply that suggestion using the `rustfix` tool by running the command `cargo
fix`:

```
$ cargo fix
    Checking myprogram v0.1.0 (file:///projects/myprogram)
      Fixing src/main.rs (1 fix)
    Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.59s
```

When we look at *src/main.rs* again, we’ll see that `cargo fix` has changed the
code:

Filename: src/main.rs

```
fn do_something() {}

fn main() {
    for _i in 0..100 {
        do_something();
    }
}
```

The `for` loop variable is now named `_i`, and the warning no longer appears.

You can also use the `cargo fix` command to transition your code between
different Rust editions. Editions are covered in Appendix E.

## More Lints with Clippy

The Clippy tool is a collection of lints to analyze your code so you can catch
common mistakes and improve your Rust code. Clippy is included with standard
Rust installations.

To run Clippy’s lints on any Cargo project, enter the following:

```
$ cargo clippy
```

For example, say you write a program that uses an approximation of a
mathematical constant, such as pi, as this program does:

Filename: src/main.rs

```
fn main() {
    let x = 3.1415;
    let r = 8.0;
    println!("the area of the circle is {}", x * r * r);
}
```

Running `cargo clippy` on this project results in this error:

```
error: approximate value of `f{32, 64}::consts::PI` found
 --> src/main.rs:2:13
  |
2 |     let x = 3.1415;
  |             ^^^^^^
  |
  = note: `#[deny(clippy::approx_constant)]` on by default
  = help: consider using the constant directly
  = help: for further information visit https://rust-lang.github.io/rust-
clippy/master/index.html#approx_constant
```

This error lets you know that Rust already has a more precise `PI` constant
defined, and that your program would be more correct if you used the constant
instead. You would then change your code to use the `PI` constant.

The following code doesn’t result in any errors or warnings from Clippy:

Filename: src/main.rs

```
fn main() {
    let x = std::f64::consts::PI;
    let r = 8.0;
    println!("the area of the circle is {}", x * r * r);
}
```

For more information on Clippy, see its documentation at
*https://github.com/rust-lang/rust-clippy**.*

## IDE Integration Using rust-analyzer

To help with IDE integration, the Rust community recommends using
`rust-analyzer`. This tool is a set of compiler-centric utilities that speak
Language Server Protocol, which is a specification for IDEs and programming
languages to communicate with each other. Different clients can use
`rust-analyzer`, such as the Rust analyzer plug-in for Visual Studio Code at
*https://marketplace.visualstudio.com/items?itemName=rust-lang.rust-analyzer*.

Visit the `rust-analyzer` project’s home page at
*https://rust-analyzer.github.io* for installation instructions, then install
the language server support in your particular IDE. Your IDE will gain
capabilities such as autocompletion, jump to definition, and inline errors

## Appendix E: Editions

In Chapter 1, you saw that `cargo new` adds a bit of metadata to your
*Cargo.toml* file about an edition. This appendix talks about what that means!

The Rust language and compiler have a six-week release cycle, meaning users get
a constant stream of new features. Other programming languages release larger
changes less often; Rust releases smaller updates more frequently. After a
while, all of these tiny changes add up. But from release to release, it can be
difficult to look back and say, “Wow, between Rust 1.10 and Rust 1.31, Rust has
changed a lot!”

Every two or three years, the Rust team produces a new Rust *edition*. Each
edition brings together the features that have landed into a clear package with
fully updated documentation and tooling. New editions ship as part of the usual
six-week release process.

Editions serve different purposes for different people:

* For active Rust users, a new edition brings together incremental changes into
an easy-to-understand package.
* For non-users, a new edition signals that some major advancements have
landed, which might make Rust worth another look.
* For those developing Rust, a new edition provides a rallying point for the
project as a whole.

At the time of this writing, three Rust editions are available: Rust 2015, Rust
2018, and Rust 2021. This book is written using Rust 2021 edition idioms.

The `edition` key in *Cargo.toml* indicates which edition the compiler should
use for your code. If the key doesn’t exist, Rust uses `2015` as the edition
value for backward compatibility reasons.

Each project can opt in to an edition other than the default 2015 edition.
Editions can contain incompatible changes, such as including a new keyword that
conflicts with identifiers in code. However, unless you opt in to those
changes, your code will continue to compile even as you upgrade the Rust
compiler version you use.

All Rust compiler versions support any edition that existed prior to that
compiler’s release, and they can link crates of any supported editions
together. Edition changes only affect the way the compiler initially parses
code. Therefore, if you’re using Rust 2015 and one of your dependencies uses
Rust 2018, your project will compile and be able to use that dependency. The
opposite situation, where your project uses Rust 2018 and a dependency uses
Rust 2015, works as well.

To be clear: most features will be available on all editions. Developers using
any Rust edition will continue to see improvements as new stable releases are
made. However, in some cases, mainly when new keywords are added, some new
features might only be available in later editions. You will need to switch
editions if you want to take advantage of such features.

For more details, *The* *Edition Guide* at
*https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/edition-guide* is a complete book about
editions that enumerates the differences between editions and explains how to
automatically upgrade your code to a new edition via `cargo fix`.